In Pakistan, troubles mounted in East Pakistan. The root of the Indo-Pak confrontation stemmed from the communal antagonism which was deep-rooted in the demographic distribution of their territories. Pakistan was agitated by the Kennedy Administration's limited military aid to India during the Sino-India War. The Cold War tensions between India and Pakistan resulted in three wars over Kashmir. Refer The Pioneer, May 12, 1998 and The Statesman, May 14, 1998. …a proxy war by Pakistan in two Indian provinces merely affects less than 10% of all Indian provinces, a proxy war by India in two Pakistani provinces can affect 40% of Pakistan. India has been instigating proxy war in Afghanistan mainly against Pakistan that began after the collapse of Dr. Najibullah’s regime in 1992, which had been backed by the former USSR. Conventional warfare finds itself slowly being replaced by the emergence of modern warfare. The US sent "Task Force 74" headed by the nuclear powered carrier Enterprise and half a dozen other ships into the Bay of Bengal through the Straits of Malacca. 22. Latest News Both countries declared a moratorium on further nuclear tests; however, the focus shifted from the nuclear issue to the Kashmir issue--which has been an irritant since partition in 1947--and the signing of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). In continuation of its theocratic ideology, Pakistan started pressurising the Maharajah of Kashmir who was undecided about joining either India or Pakistan, to join Pakistan. Sodhi "Living with Neighbours: Pakistan" Defence Today, vol. The Recent Constitutional and Legal Debates, the Latest Constitutional Amendments and Important Legislations, Legal Cases and the Role of Higher Courts. Pakistan felt let down by the US which should have extended help to them as per the assurances given to them when Pakistan joined the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO). India finds the NPT discriminative between the nuclear haves and have-nots. The Indian subcontinent, by virtue of its geo-strategic location and population, for many years has been a central area of the Great Power struggle for influence. China's technical assistance to Pakistan in its nuclear programme is of special concern to India. The Indian victory in the Indo-Pak War of 1971 gave a powerful boost to the development of nuclear capabilities. 27. With the global emphasis on geo-economics, the Sino-India and US-India relations have improved which could be affected by the nuclear explosions conducted by India. This paper tries to study the presence of the external powers in the region and their association with India and Pakistan. 12, March 1997, p. 1603. Despite the possession of nuclear weapons by India and Pakistan, there is a realisation that the nuclear weapons have only deterrent value and war is not the solution to any problem in the region. This 700-km-long line running from Chammb in the south to Ladakh at NJ 9842 point after which there is glacier, provided the future battleground between the two countries in the glaciers. It lies in the middle of the Golden Crescent (Aghanistan, Iran, Pakistan) and the Golden Triangle (Burma, Thailand, Laos) and is also a victim of militancy in Kashmir, the north-east, and, earlier, Punjab.37 Arms and ammunition are provided from across the border to the Kashmiri militants. War can be, however, avoided through constructive bilateral agreements and negotiations between neighbours. 4, no. On May 11, 1998, India conducted three nuclear tests at Pokhran to be followed by two more sub-kiloton tests on May 13.21 The international response was critical. It is hoped that these groups can strike an opponent without leading to full-scale war. Refer A. Appadorai and M.S. The US policy towards the region is guided by its own interests. America had been constantly supplying weapons to Pakistan in pursuance of its policy of the Containment of Communism which was further aggravated by the presence of the Soviets in Afghanistan and the collapse of its Iranian ally. Nanda, "Resolving the Kashmir Enigma," Defence Today, vol. 36. In the Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research, a separate Department of Atomic Energy was created in 1954. Economic Conditions of Pakistan, the Most Recent Economic Survey, the Previous and Current Budgets, and the Problems and Performance of Major Sectors of Economy. The significance of Pakistan in helping to stabilise the internal stability of Afghanistan cannot be ignored which is essentially not only for the peace and tranquillity of the region but also for the vast resources of oil and natural gas in Central Asia which can traverse to Pakistan through Afghanistan.10 Simultaneously, Indo-US relations improved because of the economic compulsions. 3, Autumn 1993, p. 123. Eventually, the Indian act to seek aid from the former Soviet Union brought both the protagonists of the Cold War into the region. The pursuit of power and global supremacy has birthed nothing but devastation. India and Pakistan in the course of their foreign policy utilised the superpowers' rivalry to their advantage. Proxy Wars: Role of External Elements 26. Company’s Financials After the war, the Government of India tried to resolve the differences with Pakistan on a new and firm basis. India tried to give emphasis on self-reliance in armaments. 25. 35. Aug 19th 1999. delhi AP. The Recent Constitutional and Legal Debates, the Latest Constitutional Amendments and Important Legislations, Legal Cases and the Role of Higher Courts. Direct involvement hurts the brand value of countries in the international arena so they employ proxy wars to engage other aggressors. The Indian government opened its border at the eastern sector for the refugees whose numbers had reached approximately ten million. The Indian nuclear policy underwent changes after the Sino-Indian War in 1962 and the first Chinese bomb explosion in 1964 which forced Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri to dilute the policy of Nehru. On the following day, the State Department declared US neutrality in the Indo-Pak conflict. However, Nehru had publicly opposed India developing nuclear weapons and had asserted that nuclear energy would be used for power production. However, the most notable feature after partition was Pakistan's fear of India's strength which outclasses it in every comparison. This led the US government to impose an arms embargo on both the belligerents on September 8, 1965. However, through diplomatic efforts, India has been trying to negotiate with China. 3, July-September 1996, p. 345. 139, p. 1688. He recognised India as the primary threat and India's nuclear programme as directly against Pakistan, which became more pronounced in the Pakistani perception after the Pokhran explosion. Vajpayee and pin-up. Both sides presented different priorities of items on the agenda but later they agreed to a mutually acceptable draft for the agenda. India retaliated and a full-fledged war erupted which lasted till September 23, 1965.7 The Indian authorities informed the US about the use of American weapons by the Pakistani forces. 21. The Pokhran explosion had led the US to think about matters of proliferation. The unsettled Kashmir issue was raised as the bogey of Indian threat and Pakistan's yearning to acquire nuclear capability. 15. The Pakistani nuclear programme received a momentum by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. 4, no. 27. With this strategic view, the war of 1948 was waged in which Pakistan occupied parts of Kashmir. Five-day Indo-Pak Summit talks began on June 28, 1972, at Simla. On March 25, fresh riots broke out, resulting in the migration of East Bengalis towards India. K.K. The Indian nuclear programme was given a practical shape in 1948 when an Atomic Energy Commission was set up to advise the government on nuclear issues. The US had supported Pakistan in the Security Council, and in 1957, had attempted to introduce a United Nations Force for Jammu and Kashmir which did not come into effect because of the Soviet veto. To make the situation worse, new political, social and economic problems erupted, straining relations between the two countries. Turkey shot down the fighter planes of Russia in Syria. Direct involvement hurts the brand value of countries in the international arena so they employ proxy wars to engage other aggressors. The Indo-Pak subcontinent experienced a rise in defence expenditure soon after the war. The UN Security Council deplored the tests and urged India to refrain from further tests.22 Chinese President Jiang Zemin accused India of blaming China and Pakistan for their nuclear tests whereas the nuclear cooperation between the two countries is "strictly peaceful in the area of technology of nuclear reactors and all installations concerned are under the control of the International Atomic Energy Agency. In order for a conflict to be considered a proxy war, there must be a direct, long-term relationship between external actors and the belligerents involved. The Russian statement is a deviation from its earlier official stand that the Kashmir issue should be discussed between India and Pakistan under the Simla Accord.30, China had supported Pakistan on Kashmir which had acted as a second front against India with whom it had a border demarcation problem leading to war in 1962. 10. Simultaneously, on April 6, 1979, the US cut off military and economic aid worth $90 million to Pakistan. On March 1, 1971, following the replacement of the civilian Governor of East Pakistan by the Martial Law Administrator and the adjournment of the opening of the Constituent Assembly, riots broke out and many Biharis were massacred. 9. It is said that the money generated through smuggling of narcotics is used to keep terrorism and insurgency alive. This is the Pakistani idea of "strategic depth." The Pakistan Institute of Science and Technology established at Nilore, near Rawalpindi, in 1965, provided research and training facilities for scientists and technicians in the country. 17. A proxy war is an armed conflict between two states or non-state actors which act on the instigation or on behalf of other parties that are not directly involved in the hostilities. On August 9, 1971, the Treaty of Peace, Cooperation and Friendship was signed between the Soviet Union and India. Major powers have been highlighted in bold. Refer Raghunath Ram, Super Powers and the Indo-Pakistani Sub-Continent: Perceptions and Policies (New Delhi: Raaj Prakashan, 1985), p. 203. 21, no. The US had been giving aircraft and airfield equipment to Pakistan under the pretext that India had obtained sophisticated weapons from the former USSR whereas Pakistan had inferior weapons from China and a small quantity from the US. The glacier opens at the Nubra Valley in Ladakh and can provide access to inimical powers to enter Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir. The Muslim organisations are funded by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, etc. Refer M.J. Vinod, "Kashmir and India-Pakistan Relations: Problems and Prospects," Strategic Analysis, vol. Rajan, India's Foreign Policy and Relations (New Delhi: South Asian Publishers, 1985), pp. Russia and China are concerned about the rising militancy and Islamic fundamentalism in Pakistan. Because of the perceived pro-Azerbaijan and pro-Turkey policies implemented by Pakistan, Armenia has developed friendly relations with India , and supports the Indian position on the Kashmir conflict. 1-2, February-March 1995, p. 42. In smaller groups Pakistan, by bits and small pieces, is attacking India. The disputes between India and Pakistan, though regional in nature, were exploited by the Great Powers in their Cold War politics. Pakistan holds assets in the form of separatist and radical religious groups in India-administered Kashmir and … Only cooperation can help in fostering peace and cooperation in the region. In the same manner, Balochistan has become the hub of foreign involvement, and is the centre of the world’s secret agencies. The Soviet Union accepted the Indo-Pak partition as legitimate. Refer V.D. In order to avoid dependence on one supplier, Pakistan gradually moved towards China. Though critical of the Pakistani attempt to develop nuclear capability, the Reagan policy was more favourable towards Pakistan because of the growing crisis in Iran and Afghanistan. Similarly, the Trump administration would not want another major economic hub in Beijing’s arsenal. Indian Express, July 8, 1989, and Telegraph, May 25, 1998. The spread of fundamentalism in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Jammu and Kashmir can spread to China's areas lying close to them and exacerbate its already prevalent ethnic problem in the Xinjiang province. Refer Robert G. Wirsing, India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir Dispute: On Regional Conflict and its Resolution (London: Macmillan Press, 1994), p. 107. Refer S.P. As Pakistani dependence on US arms reduced after the 1971 War, the Chinese became willing participants in the proposed military collaboration and technology transfers not only to establish military links with Pakistan but also because it helped subsidise their own Research and Development programme.12 Though Sino-India relations have been moving towards normalisation, China's weapons supply to Pakistan remains a major concern for India. Instead of containing Russian influence in the subcontinent, the US is more anxious about containing the growing influence of China, both economically and militarily, in East Asia. During the 1965 War, the Soviet Union adopted a neutral stand and offered its good offices for a peaceful settlement between the two warring states. Muni, "The Emerging Cold War in Asia: India's Options," Strategic Analysis, vol. 8, November 1995, p. 1144. 19, no. Pakistan had planned to organise a "Kashmir Revolt Day" on August 9, 1965, to mark the twelfth anniversary of Sheikh Abdullah's arrest and on the same day its forces were to reach Srinagar with machine guns, mortar and other heavy equipment. COMPETITIVE patriotism is the mood of the moment on the subcontinent. The Western support to Pakistan over Kashmir was a clear manifestation of their global policy to support the countries willing to counter the Soviets.28 The US position has been to resolve the Kashmir dispute on the basis of the Simla Agreement. In 1948, Pakistan sent Waziri and Mansud tribals from the North-West Frontier to free Kashmir from the Hindu Maharajah. The Indo-Soviet relations coincided with the deteriorating Sino-Soviet and Sino-India relations. An amphibious assault ship, the Tripoli, with a battalion of 800 Marines, three guided missile escorts, four destroyers, a nuclear attack submarine, and an oiler were sent by the US to support Pakistan to change the outcome of the war. 33. When that happens Pakistan feels that it must be in position to install a friendly regime in Kabul, one that will expel the Indian advisors, spies, diplomats, contactors, etc and provide a potentially friendly area to the rear of Pakistan in the event of another major war with India. However, after the nuclear tests conducted by both India and Pakistan, Russian Foreign Minister Yevgeny Primakov extended a three-point proposal including the P-5 mediation on Kashmir. Hence, for the supply of weapons, reliance on outside suppliers, mainly the UK and later France, had to continue. 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